[97] Barquq's reign saw the mass recruitment of Circassians (estimated at 5,000 recruits[99]) into the mamluk ranks and the restoration of the Mamluk state's authority throughout its realm in the tradition of the early Mamluk sultans, Baybars and Qalawun. [160] Baybars also began biweekly inspections of the troops to verify that sultanic orders were carried out, in addition to the periodic inspections in which he would distribute new weaponry to the mamluk troops. In 1206, the Mamluk commander of the Muslim forces in the Indian subcontinent, Qutb al-Din Aibak, proclaimed himself Sultan, becoming in effect the Mamluk Sultanate in Delhi, which lasted until 1290. After Timur's death in 1405, the Mamluk sultan an-Nasir Faraj regained control of Syria. [95] Among the senior emirs who rose to prominence under Ali was Barquq, a Circassian mamluk of Yalbugha who was involved in Sha'ban's assassination,[94][95] and Baraka, another of Yalbugha's mamluks. [167] In general, the monetary system during the Mamluk period was highly unstable due to frequent monetary changes enacted by various sultans. However, under the reign of Khoshqadam, Egypt began a struggle with the Ottoman sultanate. Ultimately, however, consensus settled on as-Salih's widow, Shajar ad-Durr. [34] He served as the principal bulwark against the more junior Bahri and Jamdari elements of the Salihiyyah, and his promotion to atabeg al-askar was met by Bahri rioting in Cairo, the first of many examples of intra-Salihi tensions surrounding Aybak's ascendancy. And while they maintained their veneer as pious soldiers known for their endowments to religious causes, the Mamluks also tended to opulently flaunt their wealth and high-status through ritzy attires and penchant for ‘forbidden’ entertainment – thus displaying boisterous behavioral patterns (much like the Varangian Guards) that could be perceived as being scandalous by the ordinary citizens of the Islamic realm.
those soldiers who were imported while young slaves. In May 1285, he captured the Marqab fortress and garrisoned it. [161] The offices of ustadar (majordomo), hajib (chamberlain), emir jandar and khazindar (treasurer), which existed during the Ayyubid period, were preserved, but Baybars established the additional offices of dawadar, emir akhur, ru'us al-nawab and emir majlis. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. In 1517, the Sultanate was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. [43] The surviving Mu'izzi and Bahri mamluks made their way to Gaza, where Baybars had created a virtual shadow state in opposition to Qutuz. [126] The authority of the former extended to many of the everyday aspects of Christian and Jewish life and was not restricted to the religious practices of the two respective communities. [103] Thus, Mamluk authority throughout the sultanate was significantly eroded, while the capital Cairo experienced an economic crisis. There he attacked the fleets that carried freight and Muslim pilgrims from India to the Red Sea, and struck terror into the potentates all around. Mamluk cavalry proved no match for the Ottoman artillery and Janissary infantry. In 1511, the Ottoman Sultan Bayazid II sent powder and wood to Egypt to build ships. [83] By January 1342, however, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother, an-Nasir Ahmad of al-Karak, was declared sultan. During Barsbay's reign, Egypt's population became greatly reduced from what it had been a few centuries before; it had one-fifth the number of towns. [179] Centralization over Syria and Palestine was also more complicated than in Egypt due to the diversity of those regions' geography and the frequent invasions of the Syro-Palestinian territories. [106] Barsbay's efforts at monopolization and trade protection were meant to offset the severe financial losses of the sultanate's agricultural sector due to the frequent recurring plagues that took a heavy toll on the farmers. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The... Henry VI, the King of Germany, and Holy Roman Emperor, Mercenary War (240-238 BC) – Roman Annexation of Sardinia and Corsica. [187] In the late 15th and early 16th centuries the Portuguese Empire's expansion into Africa and Asia began to significantly decrease the revenues of the Mamluk-Venetian monopoly on the trans-Mediterranean trade.
"The feudal revolution and Europe's rise: Political divergence of the Christian west and the Muslim world before 1500 CE. [87], Following Hajji's death, the senior emirs of an-Nasir Muhammad hastily appointed another of his sons, the twelve-year-old an-Nasir Hasan.
[111], Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, Turkish was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. Under Saladin and the Ayyubids of Egypt, the power of the mamluks increased and they claimed the sultanate in 1250, ruling as the Mamluk Sultanate. There he was welcomed by Sultan Qutuz. Among them was that virtually all agriculture in Egypt depended on a single source of irrigation, the Nile, and the measures and rights to irrigation were determined by the river's flooding, whereas in Syria and Palestine, there were multiple sources of mostly rain-fed irrigation, and measures and rights were thus determined at the local level. [157], The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars' early reforms was creating a military hierarchy.
[56] Furthermore, the Mamluks also received the submission of king Adur of al-Abwab further south. [93] Yalbugha was subsequently killed by his own mamluks in an uprising in 1366. [132] The Maronite Church was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the high degree of relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. Secure now against Ismail I, in 1516 he drew together a great army aiming at conquering Egypt, but to obscure the fact he presented the mobilisation of his army as being part of the war against Ismail I. [105], Before Shaykh died in 1421, he sought to offset the power of the Circassian mamluks by importing Turkish mamluks and installing a Turk as atabeg al-asakir in 1420 to serve as regent for his infant son Ahmad. Despite being nomadic people, they still conquered a good portion of land during their Golden period. And also befitting their exotic status within the French army, the Mamelukes, armed with sabers (often conspicuously curved), maces, axes, daggers, and two braces of pistols, were also attired in vibrant vests, loose shirts, red saroual (trousers), and white turbans. Flashcards. [50] The need for smooth delivery of correspondence also led to the large scale repair or construction of roads and bridges along the postal route. [2], Muhammad Ali knew that he would have to deal with the Mamluks if he wanted to control Egypt. The esprit de corps was rather bolstered during the training period, and thus the groups of young men tended to form fellowships in such military schools.
[122] Sufism was widespread in Egypt by the 13th century, and the Shadhiliyyah was the most popular Sufi order. However, the sons of mamluks could enter and rise high within the ranks of the military hierarchy,[154] but typically did not enter military service. [31][32] The Bahriyyah compelled Aybak to share power with al-Ashraf Musa, a grandson of Sultan al-Kamil. "Women and waqf: Toward a reconsideration of women's place in the Mamluk household. Muhammad Ali retained his authority. [97] In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took over the citadel and arrested as-Salih Hajji. [18] Mamluks had formed a part of the state or military apparatus in Syria and Egypt since at least the 9th century, rising to become governing dynasties of Egypt and the Levant during the Tulunid and Ikhshidid periods. The Mamluks’ were the majority of Egyptian troops under the Ayyubids. [171] The iqtaʿ of the Muslims differed from the European concept of fiefs in that iqtaʿ represented a right to collect revenue from a fixed territory and was accorded to an officer (emir) as income and as a financial source to provision his soldiers. In modern Turkish: Yüklük. [17] The Mamluk system is considered to have been a small-scale experiment of al-Muwaffaq, to combine the slaves' efficiency as warriors with improved reliability. In 1515, Selim began the war which led to the conquest of Egypt and its dependencies. In 1467 sultan Qaitbay offended the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II, whose brother was poisoned. Frequently facing rebellions by local emirs, he was forced to abdicate in 1412. [3] In addition, the caliph recognized the sultan's authority over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Diyarbakir, the Hejaz and Yemen and any territory conquered from the Crusaders or Mongols. [162] The administrative offices were largely ceremonial posts and were closely connected to various elements of the military hierarchy. Thus, they had no separate family or clan affiliation to compete with their military esprit de corps. [56] Around that time, the Mamluks had conquered the Red Sea areas of Suakin and the Dahlak Archipelago, while attempting to extend their control to the Hejaz, the desert regions west of the Nile, and Barqa (Cyrenaica). Other more exotic weapons used during both besieging and defending included the fire-based weapons like the qawarir al-naft (fire pots with distilled petroleum) thrown by mangonels, qidr iraqi (Iraqi pots) shot by giant crossbows, sawarikh firecrackers (used for frightening enemy horses), and even makahil al barud (possibly an early variant of a cannon, used in circa early 15th century). [106] Barsbay also undertook efforts to better protect the caravan routes to the Hejaz from Bedouin raids and the Egyptian Mediterranean coast from Catalan and Genoese piracy. At their height in the early 1300s, they controlled … Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to the Republic of Venice via Syria, inviting Venice to ally with Persia and recover its territory taken by the Ottomans. He died in 1496, several hundred thousand ducats in debt to the great trading families of the {Kingdom} Republic of Venice, an eastern Mediterranean state, now a port in present-day Italy. By far the most famous single religious figure of the period was Ibn Taymiyyah, who was imprisoned by Mamluk authorities because of his attempts to rid Mamluk Islam of superstition and foreign accretions. [46] The battle ended in a Mongol rout and Kitbuqa's capture and execution.
[163] The office of ustadar al-aliyah became a powerful post beginning in the late 14th century,[164] particularly so under sultans Barquq and an-Nasir Faraj,[163][164] who transferred the responsibilities of the special bureau for their mamluks to the authority of the ustadar, thus turning the latter into the sultanate's chief financial official. However, by this time the Mamluks were outmatched and outgunned. In fact, most Mamluks were proud of their Turkish heritage and thus preferred their Turkish style of dresses over the native Arab attire – which also visually set them apart from the local populace. Historians have traditionally broken the era of Mamluk rule into two periods—one covering 1250–1382, the other, 1382–1517. In the following weeks, the Ottoman punitive actions claimed more lives of other Mamluks and even their family members. The Mamluk sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri was warned by the Ottoman sultan Selim I that al-Ghawri was providing the envoys of the Ismail I safe passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. Their patronage of the rulers of the holy cities of Arabia, Mecca and Medina, served the same purpose. Qutuz had the emissaries killed, an act which historian Joseph Cummins called the "worst possible insult to the Mongol throne". In 1249, for example, the French king Louis IX launched a Crusade against the Muslim world. [105] Tatar died three months into his reign and was succeeded by Barsbay, another Circassian emir of Barquq, in 1422.
[54] Campaigns against the Crusaders continued in 1267, and in the spring of 1268, Baybars' forces captured Jaffa before conquering the major Crusader fortress of Antioch on 18 May. The pasha's forces received the submission of the Kashif, dispersed the Dunqulah Mamluks, conquered Kordofan, and accepted Sennar's surrender from the last Funj sultan, Badi VII.
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